This lengthy text, likely an excerpt from a history of the Jesuits, presents a critical examination of the Society of Jesus, its founder Ignatius of Loyola, and the broader state of the Catholic Church during its early years and the Reformation. It contrasts the self-proclaimed angelic nature of the Jesuits with the realities of their formation and practices, including their oath of obedience and the detailed rules governing their members. The source also strongly criticizes the moral decay and pursuit of temporal power within the Catholic Church, particularly highlighting the corruption of popes and the abuse of indulgences as catalysts for the Reformation led by figures like Martin Luther. Furthermore, it details the Jesuits' strategies for gaining influence, including education, missions (critiquing their methods and alleged miracles), and political maneuvering, while also acknowledging opposition they faced from various groups, including university faculties and secular authorities.
Jesuitism is Anti-Democratic - Presentation by Urban
A short slideshow presentation I put together a while back on the anti-democratic actions of the Jesuits.
Other Articles on Jesuitism
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the main themes and ideas that shaped the early Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola?
The early Society of Jesus, envisioned by Ignatius of Loyola, was fundamentally shaped by a desire to actively serve God within the complexities of the world, rather than through traditional monastic withdrawal. Ignatius sought to create a group of individuals entirely devoted to the interests of their Order, characterized by intense industry, perseverance, and an unwavering commitment to the Pope. His scheme was favored by the prevailing circumstances of the 16th century, a time of significant religious and political upheaval. A key element was the meticulous selection and training of members, with a focus on cultivating specific talents—whether oratorical, political, philosophical, or moral—and directing them towards the Society's goals. This contrasted with older orders that often served as stepping stones to personal ecclesiastical advancement. The Society aimed to be a cohesive, influential body, operating effectively in the world's major cities and impacting not only religious life but also education and potentially politics.
How did the prevailing state of the Papacy and Christendom in the 16th century influence the rise of the Society of Jesus?
The 16th century Papacy and Christendom were in a state of considerable disarray and corruption, which provided a fertile ground for the emergence of a dedicated and disciplined order like the Jesuits. The text describes the widespread worldliness of even mendicant orders, with depravities including violence being common. Popes like Alexander VI were openly licentious and used their positions for personal gain, even depicting their mistresses in sacred art. Julius II focused on temporal power and military campaigns. Leo X, despite patronizing the arts, was seen as extravagant and his actions, such as selling venal offices, contributed to dissatisfaction. Adrian VI attempted reforms but faced resistance due to the entrenched system of corruption. This environment of clerical decay and political maneuvering within the Church created a vacuum for an order that emphasized virtue, strict discipline, and unwavering obedience to the Pope, offering a perceived antidote to the prevailing moral and institutional decline.
What was Ignatius of Loyola's journey from a worldly knight to the founder of a religious order?
Ignatius of Loyola's transformation from a worldly knight to the founder of the Jesuits was a profound one, marked by a period of illness and reflection. Initially, he was a courtier ambitious for worldly success and skilled in the arts of war and courtly manners, even in his excesses maintaining a sense of decorum and respect for religious practices. A leg injury forced him into confinement, during which he read "The Life of Christ" and "Lives of the Saints" in the absence of chivalric romances. Inspired by the extreme self-denial and miraculous achievements of the saints, he began to contemplate emulating their ascetic practices. This period of intense introspection and spiritual reading led to a shift in his focus from knight-errantry to a form of "saint-errantry," dedicating himself to serving God with the same zeal and discipline he had applied to military pursuits. This internal shift, combined with his inherent strategic and determined nature, laid the groundwork for his future as a religious leader.
How did Ignatius' "Spiritual Exercises" function as a foundational text and tool for Jesuit formation and influence?
The "Spiritual Exercises" were a cornerstone of Jesuit formation and a powerful tool for influencing individuals. Presented as a divinely inspired work, the book guided individuals through a structured process of prayer, meditation, and introspection designed to lead them to a profound understanding of God's will and a complete surrender to it. The exercises aimed to intensify religious devotion, cultivate virtue, and prepare individuals for active service. Beyond the individual's spiritual development, the application and use of the "Spiritual Exercises" were central to the "method of Jesuit influence." They served as a means to shape the minds and hearts of potential followers, encouraging them to dedicate themselves entirely to the Society's goals and fostering a deep sense of obedience and commitment. The exercises were a psychological and spiritual framework for molding individuals into effective agents of the Jesuit mission.
What was the significance of Francis Xavier in the early history and expansion of the Society of Jesus?
Francis Xavier was a pivotal figure in the early history and expansion of the Society of Jesus, particularly as a leading missionary. He was one of Ignatius' first companions and is presented as a model Jesuit, embodying the Order's dedication and tireless efforts. Xavier's apostolate in the East, reaching regions from Goa to Japan, demonstrated the Society's global ambitions and its willingness to venture into uncharted territories for the conversion of the heathen. The text highlights his extraordinary energy and apparent success in baptizing vast numbers and establishing churches. While the portrayal of his miracles and widespread conversions is presented through a hagiographical lens, his historical significance lies in spearheading the Jesuit missionary endeavors, contributing significantly to the Society's reputation and expanding its reach and influence across different cultures and continents.
What were some of the challenges and criticisms faced by the early Jesuits?
The early Jesuits faced numerous challenges and criticisms from various quarters. Traditional monastic orders were wary of the Society's novel approach, particularly its secular dress and active engagement in the world, fearing it could lead to licentiousness. They also viewed the Jesuits' ambition to operate in major cities and their rapid growth as a threat. Critics questioned the source of the Society's name, seeing it as pretentious. Furthermore, the Jesuits' methods of operation, including their emphasis on obedience and internal discipline, were scrutinized and at times viewed with suspicion. External events, such as wars and political conflicts, also created difficulties for the Society's activities. The text mentions instances of hostility and denunciation, suggesting a climate of mistrust and opposition that the Jesuits had to navigate.
How did the Jesuits attempt to control and discipline their members, particularly regarding personal conduct and potential dissent?
The Jesuits implemented stringent rules and practices to control and discipline their members and prevent dissent. A crucial aspect was the isolation of the Company, with members vowing to live and die within the Society and generally reject external ecclesiastical dignities. Obedience was paramount, to the point where members were expected to be governed by superiors "just as if they were a corpse." Novices underwent rigorous probation, including manifesting the state of their conscience and recording their sins in a diary for the rector. This emphasis on transparency and confession to superiors, even outside the seal of confession, was a powerful tool for monitoring and shaping behavior. The Society also had clear impediments for entry and reasons for dismissal, including illness that hindered progress or an inability to submit to obedience. Expulsion was a last resort, with an expedient method of transferring problematic members to remote areas to avoid scandal.
What was the Jesuits' perspective on their opponents and the reasons for opposition to the Society?
The Jesuits categorized their opponents and attributed the opposition they faced to various factors. They viewed some opponents as "buried and overwhelmed by their vices," abhorring religious men who challenged their immoral lifestyles. Another class of opponents were seen as those who easily believed and spread rumors without investigating the truth, blaming what they didn't understand. They also acknowledged opposition from some traditional religious men who were satisfied with their own rules and condemned practices that differed from theirs, seeing this as a narrow view of divine grace. Ultimately, the Jesuits attributed the most significant opposition to the "stratagems of Satan," believing that the devil incited hostility against them because of their efforts to serve God and their effectiveness in combating evil. This perspective framed their struggles as a spiritual battle against demonic forces.
Briefing Document: History of the Jesuits (Based on Steinmetz, 1848)
This document provides a briefing on the history of the Jesuits as presented in Volume 1 of "History of the Jesuits" by Andrew Steinmetz, published in 1848.
1. Introduction and Author's Perspective
The history of the Jesuits presents subjects of interest to every mind, offering hints and admonitions for churchmen, missioners, preachers, and educators, and serving as models of industry and perseverance for all humanity. The author, Andrew Steinmetz, states that his object has been to seek, find, and boldly express the truth as it has appeared to him after numerous consultations, having spared neither pains nor expense to collect information for a decisive work on the Jesuits and the religious movement that antagonized the South and North of Europe. He aimed to enable the reader to judge for himself based on the facts. Steinmetz asserts his book is impartial, unconnected with any party. He has not indulged in the usual declamation or animadversion of the Jesuits; no animadversion will be found in this history. He sought the truth from the nearly equal mass of rancorous denunciation and defense of the Jesuits by meditating on the times, their acknowledged method, and its results to humanity. His object is simply to place a momentous subject in its truest possible light, expressing a wish that error were purely abstract so men could be cherished while errors are consigned elsewhere. He states he has neither a "party" nor a system to uphold. He gathered information from various authors, citing works easily obtained and verifying original authorities. He acknowledges great obligations to Ranke's "History of the Popes" for its facts, discernment, and impartiality. He is still more indebted to Rev. M. A. Tierney's edition of Dodd’s Church History of England for facts on the English Mission during Elizabeth and James I, highlighting Tierney's disclosures from documents lent by the English Jesuits of Stonyhurst. The plan of the work includes the Missionary schemes, training, educational system, and literature of the Jesuits, though the main history belongs to the first century of the Order, with subsequent years marked by retribution and downfall.
2. Context: The State of the Church and Europe in the 16th Century
The 16th century saw Europe influenced by events affecting millions, such as the rise of the Jesuits. This period was marked by significant figures and widespread moral issues within the Church.
The Popedom:
Alexander VI (Borgia): Universally denounced by both Catholics and Protestants, styled "the infamous Borgia" by the Jesuit Reeve. While described as cruel and unjust, he was temperate in eating and drinking, admired the arts, and punctually paid stipends to learned men, soldiers, and workmen, which calculated to gain friends. He issued a bull to authorize Spain and Portugal to hold possessions in the New World for propagating Christianity, which the author notes proves clerical zeal can be compatible with horrid vice. A painting depicted his mistress, Julia Farnese, as the Virgin Mary, with Alexander adoring her.
Julius II: Assumed the "sword of Mars," described as ferocious and wrathful, inveterate in simony and his passions. He stormed the town of La Mirandola and expelled the French from Italy. He was cited by cardinals and bishops to appear before a council on charges related to his exorbitant pretensions, and upon his refusal, they sentenced him to suspension. He summoned the fifth council of Lateran to regulate church affairs, reform manners, and extinguish schism. He died of a fever brought on by mental exacerbation at the failure of a political scheme, having desired to be "lord and master of the game of the world".
Leo X: His pontificate was marked by luxurious genius and prodigal display in festivals, plays, and entertainments. He was worldly, and writers like Erasmus depicted the infamy of all ranks of society in his pages, undermining papal power. He issued a damnatory bull excommunicating Luther. He lavished enormous sums on public buildings, relatives, courtiers, learned men, and buffoons. Due to a deficit in his treasury, he adopted the expedient of preaching "Indulgences" to collect money, purportedly for the building of St. Peter's. He apportioned the products of the indulgence sale in Saxony to his sister, Maddalena Cybo, to reward her family for succors in his adversity, though the means were scandalous. He also conceded to the King of France contributions intended for a crusade.
Adrian VI: Described as a Flemish pope who lived amidst scholastic subtleties. He was perceived as scoffing at elegant letters and ancient idols. He intended to reform the court of Rome, which he believed was the source of evil, and his sincerity in this was admired. However, the Jesuit Pallavicino thought he lacked prudence, suggesting government was better administered by a man of mediocre virtue but great sense. Adrian was simple and economical, refusing to increase his domestics and prioritizing paying the Church's debts. He opposed nepotism. He was notable for holding, when a professor, the proposition "that the pope may err even in matters of faith".
Clement VII: Described as a man of extensive information, acuteness, and sagacity, and a skillful debater. His reign was characterized by action, but his schemes recoiled upon himself, the Church, and the Popedom. Besieged by English envoys regarding Henry VIII's divorce, he was compelled by political reasons (pressure from the Emperor Charles V) to hold out, talking of his conscience. He wished the king had proceeded to a second marriage without asking papal consent, indicating fear only prevented him from allowing it. He died in 1534.
General State of the Church: The Church presented a spectacle of "desolation". Shepherds had abandoned their flocks, and incumbents of benefices selected insufficient substitutes. Mendicant monks were eager to serve and received extraordinary privileges. The Church was "sunk under the weight of her crimes, and polluted with mire and filth". Corrupt morals, luxury, avarice, ambition, ignorance, and simulated religion were rampant. A reformation of morals was needed, but the guilty parties resolved to silence reproach through severe denunciations rather than reform. Writers of the age, like Erasmus, exposed the vices of the clergy and monks, describing the Church as a scandal.
Intellectual and Moral Environment: Pagan mythology often replaced the concept of Godhead in the minds of writers. Leo X himself, through Bembo's pen, referred to his being made pope "by the favour of the immortal gods" and addressed the "Goddess" of Loretto. Platonic philosophy, blending with religious notions, was in vogue, particularly patronized by Lorenzo de' Medici, father of Leo X. The age combined the greatest sensualism with high intellectual development. Religious plays ("Mysteries," "Moralities") made solemn Christian mysteries tangible and familiar, presenting religion for the million. Florence became a center of science patronized by the Medici. Popes and kings were dazzled by this light. Numerous universities flourished across Europe. Princes of the church competed in the grandeur of their palaces, apparel, and entertainments. This worldliness led to an impending judgment.
Luther and the Reformation: The public preaching and sale of "Indulgences," purportedly for building St. Peter's, became a notorious practice. Tetzel, appointed to proclaim the boon in Germany, executed his task with shameless contempt of decency, claiming indulgences could remit any sin for money. The indulgences were farmed and dispersed by retail pedlars. These abuses roused Martin Luther and spurred the Reformation. Luther is described as a hard, indefatigable German student, working and waiting for his destiny. He surpassed his companions in intellect and learning, became a monk, preached, taught, and transacted important business in Rome. He was ready-witted, subtle, eloquent, laborious, studying languages and the Fathers. His character was strong and robust, with a piercing eye and a voice sweet in calm but terrible in storm. His opposition was not merely monkish envy. In 1520, he published "Tract against the Popedom" and "Babylonish Captivity," drawing and then flinging away the sword and scabbard against the papacy. In response to Leo X's bull of excommunication, Luther burned the decretals, canon law, and the bull outside Wittenberg.
Causes of Reformation Success: The abuses of indulgences stirred up indignation. The worldliness, ignorance, and immorality of the German bishops and clergy contributed to popular exultation at the prospect of their destruction. Princes and nobles favored the movement for their own advantage. Literary men, aided by printing, "enlightened" the people, and "popular rights" resonated with the nation. The spirit of religion itself, though like a muffled angel, was hopeful of the outcome.
England: Henry VIII, a gay and eventually ferocious character, received the title "Defender of the Faith" for a book written against Luther. His desire for a divorce from Catherine led to conflict with the pope. His minister, Cardinal Wolsey, though licentious, was a politician who sought to reform the corrupt clergy and obtained papal bulls to suppress monasteries, creating a college from the proceeds. This created a party against papal authority even among the orthodox. Henry's attempts to gain support for his divorce involved appealing to universities with offers of gold and negotiating with Reformers, who generally condemned the divorce. Luther himself preferred allowing Henry two wives. Ultimately, Henry's cause triumphed in England, leading to a letter of remonstrance to the pope signed by many prominent figures. Parliament and Convocation supported the king, abolishing papal revenues and severing the kingdom from Rome by legislative authority. Henry executed Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher. The religion remained Catholic, excepting papal supremacy.
Ireland: Granted by Pope Adrian IV to Henry II on conditions of tribute and propagating religion. The Irish are described as men of opinion, surface, lacking depth, whose adherence to the old religion is rooted in self-love, pride, and resistance to England, especially as the coming of Protestantism from England would be sure to be resisted. Catholic priests encouraged this notion.
3. Origin of the Jesuits
In response to the Reformation and the perceived need for new methods, various attempts at monastic reform and new orders emerged. The existing orders were seen as having passed their day and being marked by scandal. The Theatines were founded to inspire the priesthood and battle heresy, initially requiring members of noble and rich descent.
Ignatius of Loyola: He is presented as the founder of the Company of Jesus. Steinmetz depicts him as a crippled soldier and ragged pilgrim, who, like Minerva from Jove's head, sprung forth "full-grown, ready for battle". His words to his nine companions were: "We are the company of Jesus. Under the banner of the Cross we do battle for God, and serve the pope, his vicar, on earth". He instructed them to vow perpetual chastity, labor for the advancement of souls and defense of the faith by preaching, ministry of God's word, "Spiritual Exercises," and works of charity, with special attention to the young and ignorant. They were to have two constant objects: God and the design of the institute. Members were to confine themselves to their grace and rank, not aspiring beyond their powers, with rank and functions left to the judgment of the Head (General). Members must always bear in mind that the whole body and its members serve the pope. Additional vows included public preaching, spiritual functions, works of charity, and a focus on colleges. His design was not entirely original, having similarities to existing monastic orders.
Life and Conversion of Ignatius: Born in Navarre, his early life was spent in dissipation and profanity. He became a courtier and soldier, where bad habits were strengthened. He was described as not exact in religious duties, combining military profession with pursuits of love and pleasure. Yet, he observed decorum, respected holy places and ministers, was sensitive on honor, and talented at reconciling quarrels. This period lasted until his 29th year. His biographers describe him as a semi-religious worldling. His ambition for human praise was later transformed into the ambition of saints. His military career culminated at the siege of Pampeluna (1521), where, as a Spanish officer, he fought bravely despite his troops' desire to capitulate. He was severely wounded by a cannonball, shattering his leg. After recovery, he underwent painful operations to remove protruding bone and stretch the limb with an iron machine, seeking perfection of form. He was left a cripple, which must have been annoying to his character as described. While confined to bed, lacking his requested romances, he was brought the Life of Christ and Lives of the Saints. Reading the latter, full of adventure, sparked the idea, "What if I were to do what St. Francis did? what St. Dominic achieved?". This led to his conclusion that God alone could satisfy the heart and he should renounce all for salvation. His conversion involved copying the saints, particularly their terrible austerities, believing Christian perfection lay in maceration of the flesh. He resolved to attempt impossible things. His biographers describe numerous ascetic practices, including a vigil at arms before the altar of the Virgin Mary at Montserrat. At Manresa, he copied the saints, living in a hospital and subjecting himself to extreme austerities, including applying his mouth to the ulcers of the sick. He spent hours in prayer, self-scourging, and fasting. He perceived sensible thoughts suggesting an easier life as temptations of the devil. He sought a dark cavern at Manresa, where he continued severe self-mortifications, viewing a cleft in the rock towards Montserrat as a way to see and salute Our Lady. He sometimes ate only bitter roots or musty bread. A vision near Rome, on the journey there with his companions, is reported: Ignatius saw the Eternal Father present him to the Son, and Jesus, bearing a cross, said, "I shall be propitious to you at Rome". This vision was related to invigorate his companions and is claimed to be one of his most remarkable and well-vouched-for visions. The "Spiritual Exercises," a book consisting of a four-week course of meditations for achieving spiritual perfection, is attributed to him. It is described as given to men as a revelation, "written by the finger of God," and delivered to Ignatius by the Holy Mother of God. The Exercises involve seclusion, multiple daily meditations (including at midnight), and confronting frightful pictures of hell. They appeal to passions, train imagination and the corporeal senses, applying them to spiritual uses. A famous meditation is "The Two Standards" (Jesus with Poverty/Shame/Humility vs Satan with Pride/Honor/Riches). The object is religious perfection and achieving indifference to all things except as they conduce to one's created end, as interpreted by the spiritual director or superior. After Manresa, he went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, receiving the pope's blessing on the way. His initial design was to labor in the conversion of the Turks.
Gathering Companions and Foundation: Ignatius gathered his first companions, including Peter Lefevre (his "first-begotten"), Francis Xavier (his second acquisition, later called "Great Apostle of the Indies"), Lainez, Salmeron, Bobadilla, and Simon Rodriguez. In 1537, at Montmartre, they took a vow to go to Jerusalem to convert the Turks, or if that was not possible, to place themselves at the pope's disposal. Ignatius revealed his final scheme, aiming to win not just a single nation but all nations and kingdoms, and for the Company to become an Order capable of multiplying everywhere and lasting to the end of time. Paul III established the Company by a bull on September 27, 1540, initially limiting the number to sixty, a restriction later rescinded allowing infinite members.
4. The Jesuit Institute (General Idea)
The Jesuit Institute is built around the primitive ideas of Ignatius, expanded by circumstances and expediency. At its height, it comprised upwards of twenty thousand well-trained veterans, bound by rigorous discipline and submission to the General. The core vows are obedience, poverty, and chastity, with poverty implying no revenue for support or services.
Key Features and Structure:
Obedience: Perfect, prompt, enthusiastic, blind obedience to the General is central. The obedience of the will and understanding are emphasized, with the superior seen as representing Christ. Three degrees of obedience are taught, culminating in the "obedience of the understanding," where the command is considered most reasonable and best simply because the superior wills it, regardless of his wisdom or holiness. This doctrine, considered the "soul and character" of the Order, was disseminated in a famous letter by Ignatius. Members were to view themselves as dead bodies or old men's sticks in the hands of the superior.
Vows Beyond the Three: Jesuits vow never to accept ecclesiastical dignities outside the Society unless compelled by the pope under penalty of sin. They vow to denounce those who canvass for such dignities and, if they become bishops, to listen to the General's advice.
The General: Elected for life by the Professed Members. He holds concentrated authority, with commands and desires constituting the law. Qualifications include great piety, judgment, prudence, vigilance, acceptable health, middle age, and regard to nobility or wealth. He is expected to know the character and inclinations of every member, including their faults and sins, often through written reports and manifestations of conscience.
Reporting: Rectors report weekly to Provincials, who report weekly or monthly to the General. A cipher is used for matters concerning externs to prevent discovery.
Aristocracy: The Society is characterized by an uncompromising aristocracy, where the great body are servants of the General and the favored few (Professi). This structure, unlike the republican nature of other orders, meant the Jesuit belonged entirely to the Society.
Secrecy: The Constitutions were not intended for public circulation without the General's permission, and their full text was only scattered after the Society's suppression. This practice of secrecy, though common among monastic orders, was criticized.
Expulsion: Reasons for dismissal include failure in probation, uselessness, scandalous behavior, previous civil obligations, or disease hindering studies. Dismissal for crime could involve punishment, including imprisonment. Severe penalties were enacted against members who disclosed the "grave and hidden faults" of other Jesuits. Dismissal was ideally private, but subsequent practices became less lenient.
Externals: Unlike traditional monks, Jesuits had no obligatory penances or macerations, leaving these to individual piety. They wore the dress of ordinary ecclesiastics or conformed to local custom, abandoning the monastic cowl. They had no public recitation of the breviary or canonical hours, being expected to be active and present everywhere.
Membership and Training: Selection for membership was crucial, aiming for disciplined men. The novitiate involved two years of intense spiritual and moral training aimed at cultivating obedience of the will and understanding through menial tasks, humiliations, and public penances for private faults. Manifestation of conscience to superiors, not under the seal of confession, was required. After novitiate, scholastics pursued studies in languages, philosophy, and sciences, with expurgated classical texts. Cultivation of the vernacular language was insisted upon, as Jesuits interacted with the world. The Roman College served as a model, emphasizing intellectual contests, public harangues, and theatrical performances. Jesuits were expected to be "picked men," intelligent, well-looking, and active. Their method involved studying and conforming to the character and manners of others to gain their goodwill, particularly with those in positions of influence. Care was taken in selecting officials, who were typically experienced, cool-headed men of business. Regarding women, strict rules were enforced to prevent temptation and scandal, limiting interactions, particularly in confession, and requiring modesty and discretion. Ignatius himself expressed sentiments comparing the devil's nature to a woman's.
5. Opposition and Defense
The Jesuits encountered fierce hostility, which they attributed to their holy life, doctrine, and opposition to vice. They also noted that the novelty of their rule and institute, which differed from ancient orders, caused indignation. Opponents included various groups: those who should support but oppose (like Jews and heretics), Catholics who didn't live according to their faith and abhorred religious men, those who easily believed rumors without investigation, and other religious men (monks) who condemned the Jesuits' different practices. Jesuits attributed some opposition to Satan transforming himself to impugn religion. The Jesuit Ribadeneyra argued that aspects of the Jesuit Institute perceived as novel were in fact ancient practices, supported by the authority and custom of the Fathers and Catholic Reason.
Specific Instances of Opposition:
In France: The Parliament of Paris resisted the registration of the Jesuits' letters patent, issuing strong remonstrances against the Society as a dangerous novelty potentially disturbing the peace of the Church. The Faculty of Theology in Paris issued a condemnation in 1554, calling the Society dangerous, capable of disturbing peace, overturning monastic order, and better adapted to break down than build up. They listed charges including the unusual name, indiscriminate acceptance of members, lack of distinctive dress/practices, excessive privileges in sacraments/preaching/teaching, and prejudice to others. The Archbishop of Paris interdicted them, leading Jesuits to seek shelter outside his jurisdiction. Ignatius, in this case, checked retaliation by his men.
In Spain: Melchior Cano, a Dominican Doctor, was a vocal critic, calling the Institute novel and dangerous, believing Jesuits used secular dress to conceal licentiousness and seduced youth. He considered Ignatius vain and boastful of revelations. Despite papal efforts and the Dominican general's charge to love the Jesuits, Cano continued his attacks. He was made a bishop to remove him, but resigned the see and continued his opposition until his death, predicting that kings would eventually wish to resist Jesuits and find no means. Archbishop Silicio of Toledo also opposed Jesuits at Alcala University, prohibiting their teaching and excommunicating attendees. Ignatius appeased him by promising the Jesuits would not use their privileges without his consent.
In Saragossa: Jesuits faced opposition from monks and clergy regarding their privileges and location. When Jesuits proceeded despite threats, a Franciscan superior threatened excommunication. Clergy and Augustinians paraded, chanting Psalm 109 (reprobation). The Jesuits retired, and their quarrel was examined, leading to the condemnation of Privilege, the recall of the Jesuits, and their triumphant re-entry escorted by magistrates, clergy, and nobility.
6. Missions and Early Achievements
The Missionary schemes were a prominent subject of the history. The Society aimed for "world-encircling power" and was never in obscurity. Their rapid development was noted, drawing comparison to Mohammedanism.
Xavier in India and Japan: Francis Xavier was dispatched to India as Apostolic Legate, sent by Ignatius with the exhortation, "Go, and set all on fire and make all burn with love divine". Biographers portray his apostolate with claims of renewing wonders, converting the New World by preaching and miracles, subjecting idolatrous kings, and making faith flourish. However, other accounts offer correctives: letters learned by Ignatius suggested baptisms in India were too precipitate, and converts rushed back to paganism. A Catholic missionary noted Xavier made many thousand converts from the lowest castes (fishermen, hunters, etc.) and those who had lost caste. A Jesuit letter from 1700 stated conversions in India were nominal, with converts remaining idolaters and keeping caste rules, merely substituting Christian names for their gods. Xavier himself admitted the Indians' hebetude and aversion to the faith. His method involved using interpreters to teach basic prayers and articles of faith, baptizing converts "as sufficiently tried" after they repeated the Creed and Commandments. He sometimes baptized a whole city in one day. His success was partly attributed to the Viceroy of India, a friend and patron of the Society, who spared no expense and gave money to those who professed the faith. Xavier eventually grew disgusted with the Indians and left for Japan, believing conversion impossible without the terror of force. In Japan, he found a more intelligent and civil nation, eager to hear and dispute points. He obtained permission to preach and used a Bonza monastery. He left behind a significant legacy of converts in Japan. Biographers attribute numerous miracles to him, including the gift of tongues, raising the dead, and even his crucifix sweating blood. Ignatius, however, commanded Xavier's return to Europe by virtue of holy obedience shortly before his death, using language typically reserved for hard-hearted men. Xavier died on the island of Sancian, disappointed in his desire to reach China. He is styled "the Alexander of the Missions" for his rapid but unstable conquests.
Missionary Method: The Jesuit method in missions involved adapting to local customs and languages. They were chosen based on qualifications like discretion, insinuating manner, good appearance, genius, and eloquence. They were sent in company to cooperate. In India, they established settlements and divided neophytes into bands for science or trades, integrating labor with religious practice. They aimed to win hearts through gentleness and beneficence, believing a handful of Jesuits could achieve more than armies.
Education System: The Jesuits recognized the importance of educating youth. Their educational scheme aimed to cultivate talent and morals through rigorous study, classical literature (after expurgation), religious instruction, and the cultivation of polish and manners. They sought to attract students and gain the favor of parents, aiming for a monopoly in public instruction.
Influence on the Great: Jesuits cultivated influence with princes and noblemen, seen as a "fulcrum" for their work. Ignatius instructed Jesuits on how to approach and gain the goodwill of the great, conforming to their character and not initially attacking vices. This courtly influence became a significant aspect of their operations.
7. Internal Challenges and Consolidation
Even in its early years, the Society faced internal challenges.
Internal Decay in Portugal: Rapid growth under royal favor led to decay, with many members entering without fully renouncing the world, leading to ignorance, idleness, and insubordination. A severe reformation attempt by a new Provincial caused commotion, prompting Ignatius to intervene.
Coimbra Flagellation: Following unrest and secessions in Coimbra, the rector led a public flagellation of Jesuits through the streets, intended as an expiation and spectacle to regain influence and demonstrate fervor. This led students to rush to the opposite extreme of fervent austerities or contemplation.
Lainez and Obedience: Lainez initially refused the position of Provincial, claiming he needed to learn to obey better. He later complained about Ignatius drawing the best men to Rome. Ignatius responded sternly, emphasizing that the common good and greater interest should be preferred, and asked Lainez to propose a penalty for his fault. Lainez submitted abjectly, offering severe penances.
Abdication Attempt: Towards the end of his life, Ignatius attempted to abdicate the Generalate, writing a letter renouncing the position. This was met with astonishment and praise for his humility, but ultimately rejected, partly due to an incident where a Protestant emissary, who had deceived Ignatius, was discovered propagandizing among novices, raising doubts about Ignatius's judgment.
Death of Ignatius: Ignatius died on July 30, 1556. He reportedly sent his secretary to ask the pope for a blessing and indulgence. However, he died without receiving Extreme Unction or Viaticum. Biographers attempted to explain this omission. Steinmetz suggests this revealed Ignatius was laid bare at death and his deception was not permitted to be prolonged. Accounts also mention Ignatius being constantly harassed by devils throughout his life, attributed by Steinmetz to terrors of conscience or physical ailments.
8. Early Achievements and Influence
The Society, compared to Minerva from Jove's head, was "full-grown, ready for battle" from its inception, achieving world-encircling power.
Subjugation and Influence: They were influential for good or evil. Their rapid development was notable. They aimed to subjugate the masses and secured friendship with Catholic kings through the promise that Christianity could sanctify tyranny and ensure subjection. Kings granted them hands and "full purses," working together in amity. They achieved influence by appealing to the mind and heart, using a method of "spiritual strategy". Richelieu reportedly called their Constitutions a model of administrative policy.
Propaganda and Literature: The Jesuits extensively used writing to influence minds, with their biographies and other works adapted to the times for effect. Their "Edifying and Curious Letters" from missions became a staple, likened to an "Arabian Night's Entertainment," feeding the desire for wonder and giving the Society apostolic glory.
9. The End and Legacy (Preview)
According to Steinmetz's preface, the main history of the Jesuits belongs to the first century, with the period thenceforward being marked by retribution and downfall. The Society fell into the pit, eventually discarded by the popedom for whose defense it was established, and suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. The cause of their eventual failure is linked to some members serving earthly kings rather than God, becoming selfish for the Society, leading to retribution. However, the Society would later be revived.
10. Conclusion
Steinmetz's work, based on extensive research and aiming for impartiality, presents the early history of the Jesuits against the backdrop of a morally corrupt but intellectually vibrant 16th-century Europe, a Church in need of reform, and the tumultuous rise of the Reformation. It details the life and complex character of Ignatius of Loyola, the development of the Jesuit Institute with its emphasis on obedience and rigorous training, its early successes in missions and education, and the significant opposition it faced from within and outside the Catholic Church. The narrative highlights the tension between the spiritual aims of the Society and the seemingly pragmatic, sometimes controversial, methods employed by Ignatius and his followers to gain influence and achieve their objectives.
A Historical Timeline
Here is a timeline of the main events and periods mentioned in the provided text, focusing on the life of Ignatius Loyola and the early history of the Society of Jesus, as well as the broader historical context discussed:
Early History and Context (Prior to Ignatius)
Ancient Times: References to pagan philosophers like Plato, astrologers relying on Ptolemy's calculations, and the concept of "caste" in India predating European contact.
11th Century: Pope Gregory VII's pontificate, marked by his assertion of papal authority, the use of excommunication, and the consolidation of wealth and power within the clergy and the Vatican.
Medieval Period: Mendicant orders are mentioned, initially possessing vast domains, but later described as having sunk into worldliness, with mentions of violence and depravity. Chaucer's "Pardonere" is referenced as a figure selling indulgences.
Late 15th Century - Early 16th Century: The pontificate of Alexander VI (Borgia), described as a period of vice and moral corruption within the papacy, including his portrayal with his mistress Julia Farnese in a religious painting.
Early 16th Century: The pontificate of Julius II, known for his focus on re-establishing the state of the Church and his military actions, including driving the French out of Italy and overwhelming the Venetians.
Early 16th Century: Martin Luther emerges as a figure challenging the Catholic Church, his intellectual development and early career as a monk are noted. His parents are described as poor.
circa 1513: Pope Leo X's pontificate begins, characterized by extravagance and the sale of offices. He confers the title "Defender of the Faith" on Henry VIII.
Early 16th Century: Cardinal Wolsey's rise to power in England, his notorious vices and extravagance are described, alongside his efforts to reform the clergy through papal bulls empowering him to suppress monasteries.
circa 1521: Pope Adrian VI's pontificate begins, characterized by attempts at reform and a strong emphasis on economy, leading to general dissatisfaction among those who profited from Leo X's policies. He is accused of avarice.
1524: Clement VII grants Cardinal Wolsey a bull to suppress a monastery. This is followed by other similar bulls.
Summer 1526: "Young Italy" initiates military actions against the Imperialists (forces of Charles V), supported by Venetian and papal armies. Giberto emphasizes the significance of this conflict for Italy's liberation or subjugation.
1527: Rome is devastated by the troops of Charles V.
Ignatius Loyola's Life and the Founding of the Jesuits
Ignatius's Early Life: Born into an opulent home, spent his early life in dissipation. Taken to the court of Ferdinand at an early age. Ambitious courtier, chose the profession of arms. Focused on point of honor and love of women. Sensitive on the point of honor, avoided impiety or immodesty in his excesses, and respected holy places and ministers of religion.
Wounding at Pampeluna: Ignatius suffers a severe leg injury while fighting, leading to a period of confinement.
Period of Confinement and Reading: While confined, he requests romance or chivalry books, but is instead given "The Life of Christ" and "Lives of the Saints." This reading inspires him to consider emulating the saints.
Idea of Sainthood: Ignatius is struck by the idea of doing what St. Francis or St. Dominic did. He reflects on the austerity and achievements of various saints, drawing parallels to knight-errantry.
Visions and Spiritual Exercises: He experiences visions, including one representing the Holy Trinity and another of the Virgin Mary and child Jesus. These experiences are linked to his developing spiritual practices. He is described as having been made chaste by a kind of necessity and a believer without the necessity of written revelation. He has a rapture lasting eight days, where he is mistaken for dead. He authors the "Spiritual Exercises," presented as a revelation from God and the Virgin Mary.
Gathering of Early Companions (circa 1528 onwards):Pierre Favre (Faber) joins Ignatius in Paris. Faber is described as intelligent and initially influenced by skepticism but later converted by Ignatius's approach and the "Spiritual Exercises."
Diego Laynez joins Ignatius at Paris, influenced by Faber. Laynez is known for his intellectual ability and eloquence.
Alfonso Salmeron joins Ignatius at Paris, also influenced by Faber.
Nicholas Bobadilla joins Ignatius at Paris, also influenced by Faber. He later complains of being "tormented by demons."
Simao Rodrigues (Simon Rodriguez) joins Ignatius with the intention of preaching to the Turks in Palestine.
Claude Lejay, Jean Codure, and Paschase Brouet join Ignatius in Paris. Brouet is described as being strategic about his nationality (Picardy vs. Cambray) for pragmatic reasons related to political conflicts. Francis Xavier also joins, considered Ignatius's "second acquisition."
Formal Vows in St. Peter's or the Vatican (September 14, 1540): Ignatius and his early companions make their vows. Clement VII is said to have ratified this with a Bull.
Establishment of the Society of Jesus (Officially Approved by Paul III): The Society is formally established, with Ignatius as the General. The text emphasizes its unique structure, loyalty to the Pope, and strict obedience within the order. The name "Jesuit" is adopted, though initially used by opponents.
Ignatius as General: He is described as a shrewd, calculating, yet imaginative leader, acting with singular determination and employing various talents within the Society for specific tasks. He has a villa at Tibur (Tivoli). He strongly opposes Borgia's potential appointment as a Cardinal, preferring him to remain a Jesuit. He is depicted as using strict discipline and penalties within the order, even resorting to corporal punishment.
Ignatius's Views on Opposition: He classifies those who oppose the Jesuits, including worldly Catholics, easily influenced individuals, and other religious orders.
Ignatius's Method of Influence: Described as blending in with people's conversations ("embarking in the same ship") and then subtly steering them towards his objectives (soul's salvation). His methods are described as invisible and surprising.
Missionary Work Begins (Led by Francis Xavier): Xavier is sent to India. The text describes the widespread depravity and corruption among Portuguese colonists in India at this time. Xavier's missionary work is presented with both admiration and descriptions of miraculous feats attributed to him by biographers, such as healing the sick, restoring speech, and speaking multiple languages he hadn't learned. He preaches to vast crowds, baptizing thousands.
Jesuit Establishment in India: Within a few years, the Jesuits establish themselves along the Malabar coast and in the Indian islands, often leveraging Portuguese power but also attempting to win the hearts of the natives. They develop a system in their domain at Tanna, dividing neophytes into those trained in science and those trained in various trades.
Xavier's Travels and Miracles: Xavier is described as traveling extensively throughout Asia (from Goa to the extremity), planting the cross, converting nations, and performing numerous miracles like healing, speaking foreign languages, and being in multiple places at once. The text also mentions an incident where he allegedly caused a man's tongue to be eaten by cancer after the man cursed him. Xavier expresses his strong desire to go to Japan and China.
Japanese Society and Religion: Japan is described as an island near China with moral, inquisitive, intelligent, and industrious people. They are described as valuing independence and having a rich culture. Their religion is described as having a supreme God and a trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva), with numerous other deities and spirits. The Brahmins are described as the priests, divinely descended, holy, and influential. The Bonzas are described as monks. The text notes the moral depravity of the Japanese priesthood (Bonzas), drawing parallels to the monks of Christendom.
Late 1540s: Ignatius is experiencing continuous ailments and occupations related to serving "our Lord, or his Vicar on earth." He writes a letter on October 1, 1549, releasing a woman from his spiritual direction, stating the Society should not particularly direct women bound by vows of obedience.
Ignatius's Last Moments (circa 1556): He is described as trembling and suffering from night sweats due to being "tormented by demons." Bobadilla reports Ignatius complaining of never being safe from demons. The Jesuit Octavianus describes Ignatius trembling near death, sighing about the wealth and institutions of the Society but lamenting, "all these things desert me now, and I know not--whither to turn!" He is said to have died trembling, with a "very black face."
Post-Ignatius: The "Jesuit doctrine" on astrology still prevails, as presented by theologians like Salmeron and Ligorio.
Cast of Characters
Here are the principle people mentioned in the provided sources, with brief bios based on the information given:
Ignatius Loyola (also referred to as Ignatius): Founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and its first General. Described as initially a dissolute courtier and soldier who was wounded in battle. His reading of religious texts during recovery led to a spiritual transformation. He developed the "Spiritual Exercises" and is portrayed as a shrewd, determined, imaginative, and calculating leader with a focus on obedience and the interests of his Order. He is presented as both a saintly figure by his followers (credited with visions, miracles, and profound spiritual insight) and a complex, perhaps manipulative individual by the author (accused of cunning, possible deception, and harsh discipline). His death is described with disturbing details about demonic torment and uncertainty.
Pierre Favre (Faber): One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. Described as intelligent, a master of theology, and initially a skeptic who was converted by Ignatius and the "Spiritual Exercises."
Diego Laynez: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. An influential figure known for his intellectual abilities and eloquence. He is mentioned asking Ignatius about having an archangel guardian. He is depicted as undergoing severe penance after being reprimanded by Ignatius.
Alfonso Salmeron: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. Mentioned as being influenced by Faber to join Ignatius. He is later cited as a Jesuit theologian on the topic of astrology.
Nicholas Bobadilla: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. Mentioned as being influenced by Faber to join Ignatius. He is reported to have frequently complained of being tormented by demons.
Simao Rodrigues (Simon Rodriguez): One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. A Portuguese man who joined Ignatius with the intention of preaching to the Turks.
Claude Lejay: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. Described as a Genevan, a master in theology, and an "angel in mind and a rare genius."
Jean Codure: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. A Frenchman and a master in theology.
Paschase Brouet: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits. Described as a Frenchman or Belgian, a master in theology, who strategically claimed to be from Picardy to avoid problems during wartime between France and the Emperor.
Francis Xavier: One of Ignatius's first companions and a co-founder of the Jesuits, considered Ignatius's "second acquisition." He became a prominent missionary, particularly in India and Asia. He is portrayed by biographers as an ardent, enthusiastic figure performing numerous miracles and converting thousands.
Pope Gregory VII: An early pope who is mentioned for his assertion of papal authority, the use of excommunication, and the consolidation of power and wealth for the papacy and clergy.
Alexander VI (Borgia): Pope who ruled in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, described as infamous for his vice and moral corruption. His portrayal in a religious painting with his mistress is highlighted.
Julia Farnese: Mentioned as the mistress of Pope Alexander VI, portrayed with him in a religious painting.
Pope Julius II: Pope who ruled after Alexander VI, known for his military actions aimed at re-establishing the Church's state.
Martin Luther: A key figure in the Protestant Reformation. Described as intellectually gifted, well-educated, initially a monk, and known for his eloquence and work ethic. His challenge to the Catholic Church is a significant historical backdrop.
Pope Leo X: Pope who ruled in the early 16th century, known for his extravagance and sale of offices. He granted Henry VIII the title "Defender of the Faith."
Henry VIII: King of England, granted the title "Defender of the Faith" by Leo X for his defense of the seven sacraments against Luther. Described as a "very gay liver," licentious, and subsequently ferocious. He was married to Catherine of Aragon.
Catherine (of Aragon): Wife of Henry VIII and aunt of Charles V.
Cardinal Wolsey: Prime minister to Henry VIII. Described as licentious, extravagant, and ambitious, equal in state to kings. He attempted to reform the clergy and suppressed monasteries with papal bulls.
Pope Adrian VI: Pope who ruled after Leo X. Described as Flemish, unworldly, and focused on reform and economy, which caused dissatisfaction.
Pope Clement VII: Pope who ruled after Adrian VI. Described as a politician and a patron of religious reformation. He ratified the vows of Ignatius and his companions and granted bulls to Wolsey. He was compelled to propitiate Charles V after Rome was sacked.
Charles V: Emperor, whose troops devastated Rome. Henry VIII's wife, Catherine, was his aunt.
Giberto: The most confidential minister of Clement VII, who emphasized the significance of the conflict in 1526 for Italy's future.
Pope Paul III: Pope who approved the formal establishment of the Society of Jesus and was a patron of Ignatius. Also mentioned as a patron of astrology.
Cardinal d'Ailly: Mentioned as having calculated the horoscope of Jesus Christ in the century before.
Placidus de Titus: A Spanish monk from the mid-17th century who wrote a book on astrology mentioned as being in repute.
Octavianus: A Jesuit and minister or economus of the novices at Rome who reported details of Ignatius's death struggles.
Turrianus: A Jesuit eyewitness who reported details of Ignatius's death, including his trembling and black face.
Don Bertram: Mentioned as having patronage at the court of Ferdinand and taking the young Ignatius there.
Cardinal Pallavicino: Mentioned in the context of papal choice and morality, with the author suggesting he had a "gospel quite expressly" for such matters.
Cisneros: A Benedictine monk mentioned as possibly having written a similar production to Ignatius's "Spiritual Exercises."
Borrow: Author of a book (likely "The Bible in Spain") referenced for his opinions on Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits, which are presented as surprisingly positive for an Englishman and Protestant.
Misenus: A Calvinist who is mentioned for his interpretation of the number ten (the first Jesuits) as symbolizing their support of the papacy, comparing it to Atlas supporting the skies.
Hasenmüller: An ex-Jesuit who left the Order and became a Lutheran in the 16th century. He is cited for providing negative details and opinions about the Jesuits, including their views on women and their use of herbs and drugs to enervate themselves.
Socrates: Ancient Greek philosopher quoted on the dangers of a beautiful woman.
St. Jordan: A figure mentioned for rebuking a friar for touching a woman's hand.
St. Jerome: Early Christian saint quoted on the dangers of conversation with women.
St. Cyprian: Early Christian bishop quoted on the dangers of conversation with women.
St. Austin (Augustine): Early Christian saint quoted on the importance of flight rather than resistance when tempted by women.
Hardouin: A figure who appears in the context of Horace and Tivoli, mentioned as having observed Ignatius's men at work.
Pope Sixtus V: Pope who is mentioned as having summarily condemned astrology.
St. Thomas Aquinas: Medieval theologian mentioned as being at the head of the Roman Catholic Church's theologians who still inculcate a view on astrology.
Salmeron, Sanchez, Trullenchus, Suarez, Laymann, Xarez: Jesuit and Catholic theologians cited for their opinions on astrology.
Chaucer: English poet mentioned for his "Pardonere" character, illustrative of the practice of selling indulgences.
Platina: Mentioned as describing the state of worldliness among mendicant orders.
Dupin, Hardouin, Mash, Panvin., Paruta: Historians or chroniclers cited by the author.
Roscoe, Lingard, Maimbourg, Feller, Bayle, Samxarius, Guicciardini, Thuana, Sarpi, Pallavicini, Botta, Courayer, Hazlitt, Schiller, Bouhours, Borrow (Mr.), Bartoli, Damian, Orbini: Authors, biographers, or sources cited by Steinmetz.
Mohammed: Founder of Islam, referenced for comparison to Ignatius regarding the circumstances favoring their rise and their belief in their mission.
Cromwell: Oliver Cromwell, English military and political leader, referenced for comparison to Ignatius regarding single-minded purpose, belief in mission, and potential suspicious or restless temperament.
Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte, French Emperor, referenced for comparison to Ignatius and Cromwell regarding single-minded purpose and restless, suspicious temperament.
Lycurgus: Ancient Spartan lawgiver, referenced for comparison to Ignatius's organizational skills.
Homer: Ancient Greek poet, referenced for a quote about Achilles.
Milton: English poet, referenced for a quote from Paradise Lost.
Cowper: English poet, referenced for a quote.
Horace: Ancient Roman poet, referenced in a metaphorical scene involving Ignatius at Tivoli.
Brutus, Sallust, Propertius, Maecenas, Augustus: Ancient Roman figures referenced in the scene involving Horace and Tivoli.
St. Benedict, St. Bruno, St. Bernard, St. Francis: Founders of various monastic orders, referenced in a dialogue where Ignatius is asked where to place his Order.
Adam Schal, Aquaviva, Ricci: Individuals whose portraits are listed in the illustrations but not detailed in the provided text.
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